The apocryphal books, often associated with the intertestamental period between the Old and New Testaments, have fascinated readers for centuries. These texts, sometimes referred to as deuterocanonical by certain Christian traditions, were composed across a wide time span, reflecting the religious, social, and political dynamics of ancient Jewish and early Christian communities. Understanding the approximate dates of these apocryphal books helps scholars trace the evolution of thought and the historical context in which these writings were produced. Though the precise dating of each text remains a subject of scholarly debate, there is general consensus about the chronological framework for many of them.
What Are the Apocryphal Books?
Apocryphal books are writings that are included in the Septuagint and Latin Vulgate but not in the Hebrew Bible. Different Christian traditions accept different sets of these books. For example, the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches include several apocryphal books in their canon, while most Protestant traditions classify them as non-canonical but valuable for historical insight.
Commonly Recognized Apocryphal Books
- 1 and 2 Esdras
- Tobit
- Judith
- Additions to Esther
- Wisdom of Solomon
- Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)
- Baruch
- Letter of Jeremiah
- Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Jews
- Susanna
- Bel and the Dragon
- 1 and 2 Maccabees
Each of these books has its own date of composition, which can generally be determined by linguistic style, references to historical events, and archaeological evidence.
Approximate Dates of Composition
The dating of apocryphal books spans several centuries, primarily from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE. Below is a breakdown of each major apocryphal book and its estimated date of origin.
1 and 2 Esdras
Date: 2nd century BCE to 1st century CE
1 Esdras is largely a Greek paraphrase of portions of 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. 2 Esdras, often referred to as 4 Ezra, was likely written around 90100 CE, after the destruction of the Second Temple, reflecting themes of suffering and divine justice.
Tobit
Date: Early 2nd century BCE
Tobit was probably written between 200180 BCE. The story is set during the Assyrian exile and includes elements of folklore and wisdom literature. The dating is based on linguistic features and references to Jewish life under foreign rule.
Judith
Date: Late 2nd century to early 1st century BCE
Though Judith presents itself as a historical narrative, scholars believe it is a fictional story with symbolic meaning. It was likely composed between 150100 BCE and reflects Jewish nationalism during a time of external oppression.
Additions to Esther
Date: 2nd century BCE
These Greek additions to the Hebrew Book of Esther were composed to give a more religious tone to the story. The dating is based on the use of Greek language and theological themes absent in the original Hebrew text.
Wisdom of Solomon
Date: 1st century BCE
This book was likely written in Alexandria, Egypt, around 50 BCE. It blends Hellenistic philosophy with Jewish theology, offering moral and spiritual reflections aimed at the Jewish diaspora living in a Greco-Roman world.
Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)
Date: Around 180 BCE
Written by Jesus ben Sirach in Jerusalem, Sirach is a work of ethical teachings. The Hebrew original was completed around 180 BCE, while the Greek translation by his grandson appeared around 130 BCE.
Baruch
Date: 1st century BCE
Attributed to Baruch, the scribe of Jeremiah, the book is considered pseudepigraphal. Scholars suggest it was written in the 1st century BCE, perhaps during a time of mourning for the Temple’s earlier destruction or amid Roman occupation.
Letter of Jeremiah
Date: Late 3rd to early 2nd century BCE
This letter is often considered a separate book or an extension of Baruch. It criticizes idolatry and was likely composed between 300200 BCE. Its Greek style indicates it was originally written in Greek, not Hebrew.
Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Jews
Date: 2nd to 1st century BCE
These additions to the Book of Daniel were composed in Greek, reflecting Jewish liturgical practice in diaspora communities. They were likely written after 165 BCE during the Maccabean period.
Susanna
Date: Late 2nd century BCE
Included in some versions of the Book of Daniel, the story of Susanna focuses on virtue and justice. Its style suggests it was a Hellenistic Jewish composition from the late 2nd century BCE.
Bel and the Dragon
Date: Late 2nd century BCE
This addition to Daniel was also written in Greek, serving as an apologetic work against paganism. Its satirical tone reflects opposition to idol worship and was likely composed after 170 BCE.
1 and 2 Maccabees
- 1 Maccabees: Composed around 100 BCE, originally in Hebrew.
- 2 Maccabees: Written in Greek around 124 BCE, based on earlier sources.
These books document the Jewish revolt against the Seleucid Empire and the rededication of the Temple. They are crucial for understanding Jewish resistance and religious identity during the Hellenistic period.
Historical Context of Apocryphal Writings
The apocryphal books emerged in a complex historical backdrop marked by the exile, foreign rule, and diaspora. Many were written during or after the Babylonian exile, Persian rule, and especially under Hellenistic influence following Alexander the Great’s conquests. Others came into being during the Roman period, reflecting the tensions and hopes of Jewish communities striving to maintain their faith under foreign domination.
Common Themes in Apocryphal Literature
- Resistance to foreign rule and cultural assimilation
- Faithfulness to Jewish law and tradition
- Wisdom and moral instruction
- Critique of idolatry and pagan practices
- Hope for divine intervention and restoration
These themes helped preserve Jewish identity during periods of crisis and provided spiritual support for communities navigating a hostile world.
Understanding the approximate dates of the apocryphal books enhances our comprehension of their significance in both historical and religious contexts. Ranging from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE, these writings serve as a bridge between the Old and New Testaments, capturing a transformative era in Jewish history. Though not universally accepted in all Christian canons, the apocryphal books offer valuable insight into Jewish thought, practice, and resilience during times of profound change. Their influence on religious tradition, literature, and theology continues to spark scholarly interest and spiritual reflection to this day.